Efstathiou, Andreas

IR spectroscopy in the range 12–230 μm with the SPace IR telescope for Cosmology and Astrophysics (SPICA) will reveal the physical processes governing the formation and evolution of galaxies and black holes through cosmic time, bridging the gap between the James Webb Space Telescope and the upcoming Extremely Large Telescopes at shorter wavelengths and the Atacama Large Millimeter Array at longer wavelengths. The SPICA, with its 2.5-m telescope actively cooled to below 8 K, will obtain the first spectroscopic determination, in the mid-IR rest-frame, of both the star-formation rate and black hole accretion rate histories of galaxies, reaching lookback times of 12 Gyr, for large statistically significant samples. Densities, temperatures, radiation fields, and gas-phase metallicities will be measured in dust-obscured galaxies and active galactic nuclei, sampling a large range in mass and luminosity, from faint local dwarf galaxies to luminous quasars in the distant Universe. Active galactic nuclei and starburst feedback and feeding mechanisms in distant galaxies will be uncovered through detailed measurements of molecular and atomic line profiles. The SPICA’s large-area deep spectrophotometric surveys will provide mid-IR spectra and continuum fluxes for unbiased samples of tens of thousands of galaxies, out to redshifts of z ∼ 6.

A far-infrared observatory such as the SPace Infrared telescope for Cosmology and Astrophysics, with its unprecedented spectroscopic sensitivity, would unveil the role of feedback in galaxy evolution during the last ∼10 Gyr of the Universe (z = 1.5–2), through the use of far- and mid-infrared molecular and ionic fine structure lines that trace outflowing and infalling gas. Outflowing gas is identified in the far-infrared through P-Cygni line shapes and absorption blueshifted wings in molecular lines with high dipolar moments, and through emission line wings of fine-structure lines of ionised gas. We quantify the detectability of galaxy-scale massive molecular and ionised outflows as a function of redshift in AGN-dominated, starburst-dominated, and main-sequence galaxies, explore the detectability of metal-rich inflows in the local Universe, and describe the most significant synergies with other current and future observatories that will measure feedback in galaxies via complementary tracers at other wavelengths.

We present a model for the nuclear infrared (IR) continuum spectrum of the Seyfert galaxy NGC 1068. The torus emission is modelled in terms of the tapered disc models of Efstathiou & Rowan-Robinson, which give a good fit to the global infrared properties of active galactic nuclei. The models include the effects of a distribution of grain species and sizes and multiple scattering from dust. Our analysis is constrained by the inclination of the torus predicted by optical spectropolarimetry. We assume in particular that our line of sight is inclined to the axis of symmetry by about 35°, and that the half-opening angle of the cone is 30°. We find that the torus emission alone cannot account for the whole of the IR continuum spectrum. While this is in agreement with recent mid-IR imaging observations, which show that up to 60 per cent of the flux is not originating from the torus, our model suggests that the difference between the observed and predicted torus emission is actually much greater at near-IR wavelengths. We attribute this excess IR emission to a component of optically thin dust [Av=0.1-0.5 mag) located in the ionization cone between the BLR and the NLR. This dust must be distributed as r-2 in order to produce the required spectrum. Flatter density distributions peak at longer density distributions peak at longer wavelengths and also produce a strong emission feature at 10 µm, contrary to observations. Even with an r-2 distribution, the grain mixture in the cone needs to be modified in order to suppress further the silicate emission feature. We suggest that this may be due to either destruction of silicate grains by shocks or the clumping of NLR dust. In addition, our model requires that the flux radiated by the central source towards the cone is at least a factor of 6 higher than that directed towards the bulk of the torus, which is naturally explained if the central source is an accretion disc. This conclusion depends mainly on the assumed inclination and opening angle of the torus, but is rather insensitive to other geometrical parameters.

In the context of the unified model of Seyfert galaxies, we use observations from the literature and a radiative transfer model to investigate the near-IR to mm emission produced by the presumed torus in the Circinus galaxy, from 2 μm to 1.3 mm. From the infrared SED modelling, we find that the total luminosity (LIR) in this wavelength range consists of similar contributions from the torus and starburst with a ratio of nuclear luminosity to starburst luminosity (LNUC/LSB) ∼ 0.8. By using a similar torus model to that of NGC 1068, but without the conical dust, we find an upper limit to the outer torus radius of ∼12 pc with a best fit of ∼2pc. The upper limit torus size estimated from the radiative transfer modelling is consistent with the 16-pc torus radius estimated from near-IR imaging polarimetry of Circinus.

Our current knowledge of star formation and accretion luminosity at high redshift (z > 3–4), as well as the possible connections between them, relies mostly on observations in the rest-frame ultraviolet, which are strongly affected by dust obscuration. Due to the lack of sensitivity of past and current infrared instrumentation, so far it has not been possible to get a glimpse into the early phases of the dust-obscured Universe. Among the next generation of infrared observatories, SPICA, observing in the 12–350 µm range, will be the only facility that can enable us to trace the evolution of the obscured star-formation rate and black-hole accretion rate densities over cosmic time, from the peak of their activity back to the reionisation epoch (i.e., 3 < z ≲ 6–7), where its predecessors had severe limitations. Here, we discuss the potential of photometric surveys performed with the SPICA mid-infrared instrument, enabled by the very low level of impact of dust 1 obscuration in a band centred at 34 µm. These unique unbiased photometric surveys that SPICA will perform will fully characterise the evolution of AGNs and star-forming galaxies after reionisation.

We use a modified version of the code of Efstathiou & Rowan-Robinson, which solves accurately the axially symmetric radiative-transfer problem in dust clouds, to model the infrared emission from dust in active galactic nuclei. The method takes into account a distribution of grain species and sizes, and includes treatment of multiple scattering from grains. We consider three different geometries (flared discs, tapered discs and anisotropic spheres) for the torus that is believed to obscure the central engine and broad-line region, and compare predicted spectra with the observations. We find that very thick tapered discs (discs whose height increases with distance from the central source, but tapers off to a constant height in their outer part) with an opening angle of <45° and following an r1 density distribution are the most successful in satisfying the observational constraints. Tapered discs with different parameters, as well as flared discs and anisotropic spheres, predict spectra that are inconsistent with the presently available data, either because they exhibit strong emission or absorption 10-(im features when viewed face-on, or because they predict too narrow an infrared continuum. Because of the geometry and the density distribution we assumed for the tapered discs, the 10-(im emission features are eliminated with a relatively low equatorial optical depth. The resulting spectra are therefore much broader than those predicted by the very thick and compact cylinders of uniform density suggested by Pier & Krolik. We also see no need to invoke lower silicate efficiencies or silicate depletion by shocks.

We present submillimetre (sub-mm) photometry for 11 hyperluminous infrared galaxies (HLIRGs, LIR > 1013.0 h-265 L⊙) and use radiative transfer models for starbursts and active galactic nuclei (AGN) to examine the nature of the IR emission. In all the sources both a starburst and AGN are required to explain the total IR emission. The mean starburst fraction is 35 per cent, with a range spanning 80 per cent starburst-dominated to 80 per cent AGN-dominated. In all cases the starburst dominates at rest-frame wavelengths longwards of 50 μm, with star formation rates > 500 M⊙ yr-1. The trend of increasing AGN fraction with increasing IR luminosity observed in IRAS galaxies is observed to peak in the HLIRG population, and not increase beyond the fraction seen in the brightest ultraluminous infrared galaxies (ULIRGs). The AGN and starburst luminosities correlate, suggesting that a common physical factor, plausibly the dust masses, govern the luminosities of starbursts and AGN in HLIRGs. Our results suggest that the HLIRG population is composed both of ULIRG-like galaxy mergers and of young galaxies going through their maximal star formation periods whilst harbouring an AGN. The detection of coeval AGN and starburst activity in our sources implies that starburst and AGN activity, and the peak starburst and AGN luminosities, can be coeval in active galaxies generally. When extrapolated to high z our sources have comparable observed frame sub-mm fluxes to sub-mm survey sources. At least some high-z sub-mm survey sources are therefore likely to be composed of similar galaxy populations to those found in the HLIRG population. It is also plausible from these results that high-z sub-mm sources harbour heavily obscured AGN. The differences in X-ray and sub-mm properties between HLIRGs at z ∼ 1 and sub-mm sources at ∼3 implies some level of evolution between the two epochs. Either the mean AGN obscuration level is greater at z ∼ 3 than at z ∼ 1, or the fraction of IR-luminous sources at z ∼ 3 that contain AGN is smaller than that at z ∼ 1.

IC 883 is a luminous infrared galaxy (LIRG) classified as a starburst-active galactic nucleus (AGN) composite. In a previous study, we detected a low-luminosity AGN (LLAGN) radio candidate. Here, we report on our radio follow-up at three frequencies that provides direct and unequivocal evidence of the AGN activity in IC 883. Our analysis of archival X-ray data, together with the detection of a transient radio source with luminosity typical of bright supernovae, gives further evidence of the ongoing star formation activity, which dominates the energetics of the system. At sub-parsec scales, the radio nucleus has a core-jet morphology with the jet being a newly ejected component showing a subluminal proper motion of 0.6-1 c. The AGN contributes less than 2 per cent of the total IR luminosity of the system. The corresponding Eddington factor is ~10-3, suggesting this is a low-accretion rate engine, as often found in LLAGNs. However, its high bolometric luminosity (~1044 erg s-1) agrees better with a normal AGN. This apparent discrepancy may just be an indication of the transition nature of the nucleus from a system dominated by star formation, to an AGN-dominated system. The nucleus has a strongly inverted spectrum and a turnover at ~4.4 GHz, thus qualifying as a candidate for the least luminous (L5.0 GHz ~ 6.3 × 1028 erg s-1 Hz-1) and one of the youngest (~3 × 103 yr) gigahertz-peaked spectrum (GPS) sources. If the GPS origin for the IC 883 nucleus is confirmed, then advanced mergers in the LIRG category are potentially key environments to unveil the evolution of GPS sources into more powerful radio galaxies.

We investigate the photometric redshift accuracy achievable with the AKARI infrared data in deep multiband surveys, such as in the North Ecliptic Pole field. We demonstrate that the passage of redshifted polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAH) and silicate features into the mid-infrared wavelength window covered by AKARI is a valuable means to recover the redshifts of starburst galaxies. To this end, we have collected a sample of ∼60 galaxies drawn from the Great Observatories Origins Deep Survey-North Field with spectroscopic redshift 0.5 ≲ zspec ≲ 1.5 and photometry from 3.6 to 24 μm, provided by the Spitzer, Infrared Space Observatory and AKARI satellites. The infrared spectra are fitted using synthetic galaxy spectral energy distributions which account for starburst and active nuclei emission. For ∼90 per cent of the sources in our sample, the redshift is recovered with an accuracy |zphot - zspec|/(1 + zspec) ≲ 10 per cent. A similar analysis performed on a set of simulated spectra shows that the AKARI infrared data alone can provide photometric redshifts accurate to |zphot - zspec|/(1 + zspec) ∼ 10 per cent (1σ) at z ≲ 2. At higher redshifts, the PAH features are shifted outside the wavelength range covered by AKARI and the photo-z estimates rely on the less prominent 1.6 μm stellar bump; the accuracy achievable in this case on (1 + z) is ∼10-15 per cent, provided that the active galactic nuclei contribution to the infrared emission is subdominant. Our technique is no more prone to redshift aliasing than optical-ultraviolet photo-z, and it may be possible to reduce this aliasing further with the addition of submillimetre and/or radio data.

We present BeppoSAX observations of the southern S1 region in the European Large-Area Infrared Space Observatory (ISO) Survey (ELAIS). These observations cover an area of ∼1.7 deg2 and reach an on-axis (∼0.7 deg2) 2-10 keV (hard X-ray, or HX) sensitivity of ∼10-13 ergs s-1 cm-2. This is the first HX analysis of an ISOCAM survey. We detect nine sources with a signal-to-noise ratio SNRHX > 3, four additional sources with a 1.3-10 keV (total X-ray, or T) SNRT > 3, and two additional sources that seem to be associated with QSOs having SNRT > 2.9. The number densities of the SNRHX > 3 sources are consistent with the ASCA and BeppoSAX log N-log S functions. Six BeppoSAX sources have reliable ISOCAM 15 μm counterparts within ∼60″. All these ISOCAM sources have optical counterparts of R < 20 mag. Five of these sources have been previously optically classified, four as QSOs and one as a broad absorption line (BAL) QSO at z = 2.2. The remaining unclassified source has X-ray and photometric properties consistent with those of a nearby Seyfert galaxy. One further HX source has a 2.6 σ ISOCAM counterpart associated with a galaxy at z = 0.325. If this ISOCAM source is real, the HX/MIR properties suggest either an unusual QSO or a cD cluster galaxy. We have constructed MIR and HX spectral energy distributions to compute the expected HX/MIR ratios for these classes of objects up to z = 3.2 and assess the HX/MIR survey depth. The BAL QSO has an observed X-ray softness ratio and HX/MIR flux ratio similar to those of QSOs but different from those found for low-redshift BAL QSOs. This difference can be explained in terms of absorption, and it suggests that high-redshift BAL QSOs should be comparatively easy to detect in the HX band, allowing their true fraction in the high-redshift QSO population to be determined. The QSOs cover a wide redshift range (0.4 < z < 2.6) and have HX/MIR flux ratios consistent with those found for nearby IRAS and optically selected Palomar-Green QSOs. This suggests that MIR-selected QSOs of R < 20 mag come from the same population as optically selected QSOs. We confirm this with a comparison of the B/MIR flux ratios of MIR and blue-band-selected QSOs.